- What is forestry?
Ans. Forestry is a science and art of creating, managing, conserving and repairing forests and associated resources in a sustainable manner for human benefit. Forestry is practised in plantations and natural stands. The main goal of forestry is to create and implement systems that allows forests to continue a sustainable provision of environmental supplies and services.
The challenge of forestry is to create systems that are socially accepted while sustaining the resource and any other resources that might be affected.
2. Why did the Colonial Government start commercial forestry in India? Give any three reasons.
Ans. The British Colonial Government started commercial forestry in India due to following reasons
(i) By the early 19th century, oak forests in England were disappearing. The colonial government needed timber supply for the Royal navy and railways which were essential for the movement of imperial troops and commercial trade.
(ii) The Colonial Government took over the forests in India and gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates. These areas were enclosed and planted with tea and coffee.
(iii) The British government was worried about the reckless use of forests by the local people. They needed trees that could provide hard wood and were tall and straight. So particular species like teak and sal trees were promoted by them. Thus, commercial forestry was started by the Britishers and Indian forests Act was passed in 1865.
3. Explain any four ideas of Dietrich Brandis for the management of forests in India during the British period.
Or
Who was Dietrich Brandis? Explain his achievement in India.
Ans. Dietrich Brandis, a German expert, was appointed the first Inspector-General of Forests in India.
His ideas and achievements for the management of forests are stated in the points below
(i) He formulated new forest legislation and helped establish research and training institutions. The Imperial Forest Research Institute at Dehradun was founded by him in 1906.
(ii) He set up the Indian Forest Service (IFS) in 1864 and helped to formulate the Indian Forest Act of 1865.
(iii) He took an interest in the forest flora of North-West and Central India and Indian trees.
(iv) He was among the earliest expert in India to formally link forest protection with local people.
- What were the defects of ‘Scientific Forestry’ technique?
Or
Describe the defects in the techniques of ‘Scientific Forestry’.
Ans. Dietrich Brandis set up the Indian Forest Service in 1864 and helped formulate the Indian Forest Act of 1865. In 1906 the Imperial Forest Research Institute was set up at Dehradun and ‘Scientific Forestry’ was introduced in India. But ecologists believe .that this system is not scientific at all and has many defects
These are
(i) In this system natural forest diversity was harmed because different types of trees were cut down.
(ii) This system advocated only those trees in forests which provided timber. It snatched the different needs of forest dwellers. The forest dwellers wanted a mixture of species of trees for their fuel fodder and food.
(iii) It also affected the ecological balance as multi-species forest gradually got converted into plantation.
5. What are the local names of shifting cultivation in South East Asia, Central America and Sri Lanka? Describe any three features of shifting cultivation.
Ans. Shifting cultivation or Swidden agriculture is a traditional agricultural practice in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America. It has different local names in different areas, viz.,
The main features of shifiing cultivation are
(i) Parts of forest are cut and burnt in rotation.
(ii) Seeds are sown in the ashes after the first monsoon rains and the crop is harvested by October-November.
(iii) A mixture of crops is grown on such plots for a couple of years and then left fallow for 12 to 18 years for the forest to grow back.
- Under colonial rule , why did the scale of hunting increase to such an extent that various species became almost extinct?
Ans. In India hunting of tigers and other wild animals became a game or source of entertainment for the kings and nobles. But under British rule the scale of hunting increased to such an extent that various species became almost extinct.
The reasons behind this condition are (i) The British saw large animals as signs of a wild, primitive and savage society.
(ii) They believed that by killing dangerous animals the British would civilise India.
(iii) They gave rewards for the killing of tigers, wolves and other large animals on the grounds that they posed a threat to cultivators.
- Over 80,000 tigers, 150,000 leopards and 200,000 wolves were killed for reward in the period 1875-1925.
- Certain areas of forests were reserved for hunting.
- Who were the Kalangs? Mention any four characteristics of this community.
Ans. The Kalangs were a tribal community of Java.
Their four characteristics are
(i) They were skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators.
(ii) They had a great skill in building palaces.
- They were so valuable that in 1755, when the Mataram kingdom of Java split, the 6000 Kalang families were equally divided between the two kingdoms.
- The Kalangs worked, under the Dutch, when Dutch began to gain control over the forests in the 18th century.
- Why were the Kalangs of Java known as a community of skilled forest cutters?
Ans. The Kalangs of Java used shifting cultivation. They harvested teak. They were also skilled forest cutters. Without their expertise it was difficult for the king of Java to build their palaces.
They were so valuable to the king that in 1755 when the Mataram kingdom of Java split, the 6000 Kalang families were equally divided among the two kingdoms. Thus, the7 Kalangs were regarded as the skilled forest cutter community.
- What new developments have occurred in forestry in Asia and Africa in recent times?
Ans. In recent times, Asian and African Governments introduced social forestry and the policy of keeping forest communities away from forests have only resulted in conflicts. Conservation of forests rather than collecting timber became the primary aim.
In order to meet this goal, the government realised that the involvement of people living near the forests is must. Infact, across India from Mizoram to Kerala dense forests have survived only because villagers protected them in sacred groves known as Sarnas, Devarakudu, Kan, Rai, etc. Some villagers patrolled their own forest with each household taking it in turns instead of leaving it to forest guards.
10. Why and how did the rebellion of the people Bastar take place against the British?
Ans. The people of Bastar were self-dependent and took care of natural resource within their boundary. But the Colonial Government introduced reserved forest and imposed restriction on shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce.
Villagers were allowed to stay only if they provided free labour but others were displaced without any notification or compensation.
Organisation of Rebellion
Initiative was taken by Dhurwas of the Kanger forest to organise people.
It is said that many people protested under leadership of Gunda Dhur. They looted Bazaars, houses of officials and traders, schools and police stations were burnt and robbed and grains were redistributed among the people. They attacked anyone who were in some way or other associated with colonial state and its oppressive laws.
11. Who worked as plantation workers and what were the working conditions?
Ans. The British Government recruited tribals like Santhals,. Oraons (Jharkhand) and Gonds (Chattisgarh) as plantation workers.
The working condition of plantation workers were miserable as the following points suggest
(i) Plantation workers were getting low wages.
(ii) They did not receive any social security benefit.
(iii) They were not allowed to go to their native place.
12. When and why did the forests around railway tracks start disappearing very fast? Explain.
Or
Why did forests around railway tracks in India start disappearing after 1860?
Ans. In India the railway network expanded rapidly from the 1860s. Due to following reasons forests started disappearing around railway tracks at that time
(i) By 1890 about 25,500 km of track had been laid and in 1946 the length of the tracks had increased to over 765,000 km.
(ii) As the railway tracks increased large number of trees were cut down. .
(iii) The government gave out contracts to individuals to supply the required quantity of woods.
(iv) These contractors began to cut trees indiscriminately.
- What were the beliefs of people of Bastar?
Ans. Many different communities like Maria and Mundia Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatran and Halles lived in Bastar. Though they spoke different languages but no shared common customs and beliefs.
They believed that the land in the village is given by Earth and hence showed respect to natural resources, forest river and mountain. They looked after their land and natural resources within their boundary. They used to protect their forest by appointing watchman. The headmen of villages used to meet to discuss and sort out issues.
14. “The ship industry of England was also responsible for deforestation in India”. Give one reason.
Ans. Due to the high demand, by the early 19th century, oak forests in England were disappearing. This created a problem of timber supply for the Royal Navy which required to build ships.
To get the supply of oak for the ship industry, Britishers started exploring Indian forests on a massive scale. Within a decade, trees were being felled on a large scale and vast qualities of timber were being exported from India.
Thus, it can be concluded that the ship industry of England was also responsible for deforestation in India.
15. ‘The expansion of cultivation is a sign of progress’. Do you agree with the statement? Justify your answer with arguments.
Or
Explain any five reasons for the expansion of cultivation by the colonial rulers in India.
Ans. In the colonial period, cultivation expanded for a variety of reasons. These are
(i) In Europe, foodgrains were needed to feed the growing urban population. The demand for wheat increased largely in the 19 th century.
(ii) The colonial rulers considered the expansion of cultivation as a sign of progress.
(iii) The British government directly encouraged the production of commercial crops, like jute, sugar, wheat and cotton to get more profit. ‘
(iv) Europe needed raw materials for industrial production.
(v) In the early 19th century, the colonial state thought that forests were unproductive so forests had to be brought under cultivation and land could yield agricultural products and revenue. In this way the income of the state enhanced.
Thus, it can be concluded that expansion of cultivation is a sign of progress.