Contents
One of the most fascinating Biology Topics is the study of genetics and how traits are passed down through generations.
Biodiversity Hotspots for Conservation Priorities – Future of Endemic Flora of Biodiversity Hotspots in India
A biosphere hot spot is defined as a natural environment that contains an exceptionally large number of endangered species found nowhere else. Norman Myers developed the “hotspots” concept in 1988. “The hotspots are the richest and the most threatened reservoirs of plant and animal life on earth”.
Ecologically hotspots are determined by four factors
- Number of species or species diversity.
- Degree of endemism.
- Degree of threat to habitat due to its degradation and fragmentation.
- Degree of exploitation.
Myers initially identified 12 hotspots with 14% of plant species in an area of only 0.2%. Present-day ecologists have identified 36 hotspots that mainly occur in tropical forests. They represent 2.3% of the earth’s land surface.
36 Hotspots of Biodiversity in the World:
Name of the Region | Name of the Hotspots |
North and Central America | 1. California Floristic Province |
2. Madrean pine-oak woodlands | |
3. Mesoamerica | |
4. North American Coastal Plain (NACP) | |
The Caribbean | 1. Caribbean Islands |
South America | 1. Atlantic Forest |
2. Cerrado | |
3. Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests | |
4. Tumbes-Choco-Magdalena | |
5. Tropical Andes | |
Europe | 1. Mediterranean Basin |
Africa | 1. Cape Floristic Region |
2. Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa | |
3. Eastern Afromontane | |
4. Guinean Forests of West Africa | |
5. Horn of Africa | |
6. Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands | |
7. Maputaland-Pondolanct-Albany | |
8. Succulent Karoo | |
Central Asia | 1. Mountains of Central Asia |
South Asia | 1. Eastern Himalaya, Nepal, India |
2. Indo-Burma, India and Myanmar | |
3. Western Ghats and Srilanka | |
South East Asia and Asia-Pacific | 1. East Melanesian Islands |
2. New Caledonia | |
3. New Zealand | |
4. Philippines | |
5. Polynesia-Micronesia | |
6. Eastern Australian Temperate Forests | |
7. Southwest Australia | |
8. Sundaland | |
9. Wallacea | |
East Asia | 1. Japan |
2. Mountains of Southwest China | |
West Asia | 1. Caucasus |
2. Irano-Anatolian |
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans. To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of the hotspot map, a region must meet two strict criteria:
- It must contain atleast 0.5% or 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics.
- It has to have lost atleast 70% of its primary vegetation.
In total in the terrestrial part of the earth, there are about 36 hot spots and these sites contain about 60% of the world’s plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species. In the aquatic ecosystem, there are also several (eleven) hotspots, but information about them is still inadequate. However, all the biodiversity hotspots are concentrated around the equator on the Earth.
Important Hot Spots in the World
- Mediterranean climate coast of California
- Madagascar
- Philippines
- Western Ghats of India
- Choca-Darien Western Equator
- Succulent Karoo of South Africa.
Biodiversity Hotspots in India
In the Indian subcontinent, there are four major biodiversity hotspots namely
- Eastern Himalayas
- The Western Ghat and Sri Lanka
- Indo-Burma
- Sundaland
A. The Eastern Himalayas
The Himalayan mountain system is the world’s highest, and home to the world’s highest peaks, which include Mount Everest and K2. To comprehend the enormous scale of this mountain range, consider that Aconcagua, in the Andes, at 6962 meters is the highest peak outside Asia, whereas the Himalayan system includes over 100 mountains exceeding 7200 meters. The mountain rise abruptly, resulting in a diversity of ecosystems that range from alluvial grassland and subtropical broadleaf forests along the foothills to temperate broad-leaf forests in the mid-hill, mixed conifers and conifer forests in the higher hills and alpine meadows above the tree line. Vascular plants have even been recorded at more than 6000 meters. The hotspot is home to an important population of numerous large birds and mammals, including vultures, tigers, elephants, rhinos, and wild water buffalo. It extends from North Eastern India to Bhutan. This area is specially rich in some endemic plants. Temperate forests are found here at a height of 1780-3500 metres.
About the Region:
The Eastern Himalayas is the region encompassing Bhutan, northeastern India, and southern, central, and eastern Nepal. The region is geologically young and shows high altitudinal variation. This immense mountain range, which covers nearly 750,000 km2, has been divided into two regions; the Eastern Himalaya, which covers parts of Nepal, Bhutan, the northeast Indian states of West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh, southeast Tibet (Autonomous Region of China), and northern Myanmar, and the Western Himalaya, covering the Kumaon-Garhwal, northwest Kashmir, and northern Pakistan.
Some of the world’s major river systems arise in the Himalayas, and their combined drainage basin is home to some 3 billion people (almost half of Earth’s population) in 18 countries. Geologically, the origin of the Himalayas is the impact of the Indian tectonic plate traveling northward at 15 cm per year to impact the Eurasian continent, about 40-50 million years ago. The formation of the Himalayas resulted since the lighter rock of the seabeds of that time was easily uplifted into mountains.
Important Signs of the Hotspots:
Hotspot Original Extent (km2) | 741,706 |
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km2) | 185,427 |
Endemic Plant Species | 3,160 |
Endemic Threatened Birds | 8 |
Endemic Threatened Mammals | 4 |
Endemic Threatened Amphibians | 4 |
Extinct Species* | 0 |
Human Population Density (People/km2) | 123 |
Area Protected (km2) | 112,578 |
Area Protected (km2) in Categories I-IV** | 77,739 |
* Recorded extinctions since 1500.
**Categories l-IV afford higher levels of protection.
Biodiversity:
The Eastern Himalayan hotspot has nearly 163 globally threatened species including the one-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), the Wild Asian Water buffalo [Bubalus bubalis (Arnee)], and in all 45 mammals, 50 birds, 17 reptiles, 12 amphibians, 3 invertebrate and 36 plant species. The Relict Dragonfly (Epiophlebia Laidlaw) is an endangered species found here with the only other species in the genus being found in Japan. The region is also home to the Himalayan Newt (Tylototriton verrucosus), the only salamander species found within Indian limits.
There are an estimated 10,000 species of plants in the Himalayas, of which one-third are endemic and found nowhere else in the world. Five families – Tetracentraceae, Hamamelidaceae, Circaesteraceae, Butomaceae, and Stachyuraceae are completely endemic to this region. Many plant species are found even in the highest reaches of the Himalayan mountains. For example, the plant species Ermania himalayensis was found at an altitude of 6300 meters in the northwestern Himalayas. A few threatened endemic bird species such as the Himalayan Quail, Cheer pheasant, and Western tragopan are found here, alongwith some of Asia’s largest and most endangered birds such as the Himalayan vulture and White-bellied heron.
B. The Western Ghat and Srilanka
Due to tremendous population pressure, the forests of the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka have been dramatically impacted by the demands for timber and agricultural land. The remaining forests of the Western Ghats are heavily fragmented; in Sri Lanka, only 1.5 percent of the original forest remains. Population levels are also applying increased stress on the fringes of protected areas where many farms, loggers, and poachers use the resources illegally. Due in part to the varying effects of the yearly monsoons and the high mountain regions, this hotspot is home to a rich endemic assemblage of plants, reptiles, and amphibians. Sri Lanka alone may be home to as many as 140 6 endemic species of amphibians. The region also houses important populations of Asian elephants, Indian tigers, and the endangered lion-tailed macaque. Freshwater fish endemism is extremely high as well with over 140 native species. It covers about 5,000 sq miles of undisturbed forests with thick vegetation of grass, evergreen, and deciduous forest. The important species of mammals are the Indian tiger, Asian elephant, Lion-tailed macaque, and Nilgiri lahar. Among the animals 90 amphibians, 88 reptiles, 16 birds, and 22 mammals are endemic and 1500 species of plants are endemic.
About the Region:
The Western Ghats are a chain of hills that run along the western edge of peninsular India. Their proximity to the ocean and through the orographic effect, they receive high rainfall. These regions have moist deciduous forests and rainforests. This region shows high species diversity as well as high levels of endemism. Nearly 77% of the amphibians and 62% of the reptile species found here are found nowhere else. Srilanka, which lies to the south of India is also a country rich is species diversity. It has been connected with India through several past glaciation events by a land bridge almost 140 km wide.
The Western Ghats of southwestern India and the highlands of southwestern Sri Lanka, separated by 400 kilometers are strikingly similar in their geology, climate, and evolutionary history. The Western Ghats, known locally as the Sahyadri Hills, are formed by the Malabar Plains and the chain of mountains running parallel to India’s western coast, about 30 to 50 kilometers inland. They cover an area of about 160,000 km2 and stretch for 1,600 kilometers from the country’s southern tip to Gujarat in the north, interrupted only by the 30-kilometer Palghat Gap. Sri Lanka is a continental island separated from southern India by the 20-meter-deep Palk Strait. The island, some 67,654 km2 in size, has been repeatedly connected with India between successive interglacials, most recently until about 7,000 years ago by a land bridge up to about 40 kilometers wide.
The Western Ghats mediates the rainfall regime of pen-insular India by intercepting the southwestern monsoon winds. The western slopes of the mountains experience heavy annual rainfall (with 80 percent of it falling during the southwest monsoon from June to September), while the eastern slopes are drier; rainfall also decreases from south to north. Dozens of rivers originate in these mountains, including the peninsula’s three major eastward-flowing rivers. Thus they are important sources of drinking water, irrigation, and power. The wide variation of rainfall patterns in the Western Ghats, coupled with the region’s complex geography, produces a great variety of vegetation types. These include scrub forests in the low-lying rainshadow areas and the plains, deciduous and tropical rainforests up to about 1,500 meters, and a unique mosaic of montane forests and rolling grasslands above 1,500 meters.
Precipitation across Sri Lanka is dependent on monsoon winds, resulting in much of the island experiencing relatively low rainfall (less than 2,000 millimeters per year), except for the south-western “wet zone” quarter, where precipitation ranges to as much as 5,000 millimeters per year. While dry evergreen forests occupy almost the entirely of the “dry zone”, dipterocarp-dominated rainforests dominate the lowlands of the wet zone, and some 220 km2 of tropical montane cloud forest still persist in the central hills, which rise to a maximum altitude of 2,524 meters.
Important Signs of the Hotspots:
Hotspot Original Extent (km2) | 189,611 |
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km2) | 43,611 |
Endemic Plant Species | 3,049 |
Endemic Threatened Birds | 10 |
Endemic Threatened Mammals | 14 |
Endemic Threatened Amphibians | 87 |
Extinct Species* | 20 |
Human Population Density (People/km2) | 261 |
Area Protected (km2) | 26,130 |
Area Protected (km2) in Categories I-IV** | 21,259 |
* Recorded extinctions since 1500.
** Categories I-IV afford higher levels of protection.
Biodiversity:
There are over 6000 vascular plants belonging to over 2500 genera in this hotspot of which over 3000 are endemic. Much of the world’s spices such as black pepper and cardamom have their origins in the Western Ghats. The highest concentration of species in the Western Ghats is believed to be the Agasthyamalai Hills in the extreme south. The region also harbors over 450 bird species, about 140 mammalian species, 260 reptiles, and 175 amphibians. The lion-tailed macaque is a flagship species of the Western Ghats. Over 60% of the reptiles and amphibians are completely endemic to the hotspot. Remarkable as this diversity is, it is severely threatened today. The vegetation in this hotspot originally extended over 1,90,000 square kms. Today, it’s been reduced to just 43,000 sq. km. In Sri Lanka, only 1.5% of the original forest cover still remains.
C. Indo-Burma
Encompassing more than 2 million km2 of tropical Asia, Indo-Burma is still revealing its biological treasures. Six large mammal species have been discovered in the last 12 years, the Large antlered muntjac, the Annamite muntjac, the Grey-shanked douc, the Annamite stripped rabbit, the leaf dear, and the Saola. The Indo-Burma encompasses several countries from eastern Bangladesh to Malaysia and includes North Eastern India. This region is home to many primate species, especially some fresh water turtle species that are endemic.
About the Region:
The Indo-Burma region encompasses several countries. It is spread out from Eastern Bangladesh to Malaysia and includes North-Eastern India south of the Brahmaputra River, Myanmar, the southern part of China’s Yunnan province, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Thailand. The Indo-Burma region is spread over 2 million sq. km of tropical Asia. Since this hotspot is spread over such a large area and across several major landforms, there is a wide diversity of climate and habitat patterns in this region.
Important Signs of the Hotspot:
Hotspot Original Extent (km2) | 2,373,057 |
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km2) | 118,653 |
Endemic Plant Species | 7,000 |
Endemic Threatened Birds | 18 |
Endemic Threatened Mammals | 25 |
Endemic Threatened Amphibians | 35 |
Extinct Species* | 1 |
Human Population Density (People/km2) | 34 |
Area Protected (km2) | 235,758 |
Area Protected (km2) in Categories I-IV** | 132,283 |
*Recorded extinctions since 1500.
** Categories I-IV afford higher levels of protection.
Biodiversity:
Much of this region is still a wilderness but has been deteriorating rapidly in the past few decades. In recent times, six species of large mammals have been discovered here: Leaf deer, and the Saola. This region is home to several primate species such as monkeys, langurs, and gibbons with populations numbering only in the hundreds. Many of the species, especially some freshwater turtle species, are endemic. Almost 1,300 bird species exist in this region including the threatened white-eared night heron, the grey-crowned crocias, and the orange-necked partridge. It is estimated that there are about 13,500 plant species in this hotspot, with over half of them endemic. Ginger, for example, is native to this region.
A wide diversity of ecosystems is represented in this hotspot, including mixed wet evergreen, dry evergreen, deciduous, and montane forests. There are also patches of shrublands and woodlands on karst limestone outcrops and in some coastal areas, scattered heath forests. In addition, a wide variety of distinctive, localized vegetation formations occur in Indo-Burma, including lowland floodplain swamps, mangroves, and seasonally inundated grasslands.
D. Sundaland
Sundaland is a region in South-East Asia that covers the western part of the Indo-Malayan archipelago. It includes Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and Indonesia. India is represented by the Nicobar Islands. The United Nations declared the islands a World Biosphere Reserve in 2013. The islands have a rich terrestrial and marine ecosystem that includes mangroves, coral reefs and seat) grass beds. The marine biodiversity includes several species such as whales, dolphins, dugongs, turtles, crocodiles, fishes, prawns, lobsters, corals, and sea shells. The primary threat to this biodiversity comes from over-exploitation of marine resources. In addition, the forests on the island also need to be protected.
About the Region:
More than a million years ago, the islands of Sundaland were connected to mainland Asia. As sea levels changed during the Pleistocene, this connection periodically disappeared, eventually leading to the current isolation of the islands. Sundaland is a region of South-East Asia, where India is represented by the Nicobar Islands. The island has a rich terrestrial and marine ecosystem that includes mangroves, coral reefs, and grass beds.
Politically, Sundaland covers a small portion of southern Thailand (provinces of Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat); nearly all of Malaysia (nearly all Peninsular Malaysia and the East Malaysian states of Sarawak and Sabah in northern Borneo); Singapore at the tip of the Malay Peninsula; all of Brunei Darussalam; and all of the western half of the megadiversity country of Indonesia, including Kalimantan (the Indonesian portion of Borneo, Sumatra, Java and Bali). The Nicobar Islands, which are under Indian jurisdiction, are also included. Sundaland is bordered by the three hotspots. The boundary between the Sundaland hotspot and the Indo-Burma hotspot to the northwest is here taken as the Kangar-Pattani Line, which crosses the Thailand-Malaysia border.
Important Signs of the Hotspot:
Hotspot Original Extent (km2) | 1,501,063 |
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km2) | 100,571 |
Endemic Plant Species | 15,000 |
Endemic Threatened Birds | 43 |
Endemic Threatened Mammals | 60 |
Endemic Threatened Amphibians | 59 |
Extinct Species* | 4 |
Human Population Density (People/km2) | 153 |
Area Protected (km2) | 179,723 |
Area Protected (km2) in Categories I-IV** | 77,408 |
* Recorded extinctions since 1500.
** Categories I-IV afford higher levels of protection.
Biodiversity:
The spectacular flora and fauna of the Sundaland Hotspot are succumbing to the explosive growth of industrial forestry in these islands and to the international animal trade that claims tigers, monkeys, and turtle species for food and medicine in other countries. Populations of the Orangutan found only in this hotspot, are in dramatic decline. Some of the last refuges of two Southeast Asia rhino species are also found on the islands of Java and Sumatra.
Like many tropical areas, the forests are being cleared for commercial use. Rubber, oil palm, and pulp production are three of the most detrimental forces facing biodiversity in the Sundaland Hotspot. Lowland rainforests are dominated by the towering trees of the family Dipterocarpaceae. Sandy and rocky coastlines harbor stands of beach forest, while muddy shores are lined with mangrove forests, replaced inland by large peat swamp forests. In some places, ancient uplifted coral reefs support specialized forests tolerant of the high levels of calcium and magnesium in these soils. Infertile tertiary sandstone ridges support healthy forests. Higher elevations boast montane forests thick with moss, lichens, and orchids, while further up, scrubby subalpine forests are dominated by rhododendrons. At the very tops of the highest mountain peaks, the land is mostly rock and without much vegetation.
Reasons for Biodiversity Loss in Hotspots
There are four main reasons why species are being threatened in these biodiversity hotspots:
1. Habitat Destruction:
As recently as 30 years ago, most of the regions in these biodiversity hotspots were inaccessible and remote. Now, due to better infrastructure, contact of these areas with humans has increased. Activities such as the logging of wood, increased agriculture, and increased human habitation have led to the destruction of forests and the pollution of rivers. These factors are causing species ranges to reduce and habitats to become choppy. The government planned to establish habitat corridors, but these plans have not yet materialized in most areas. Activities such as mining, construction of large dams, and highway construction have also caused significant destruction of habitats.
2. Resource Mismanagement:
Increased tourism without proper regulation has led to pollution and environmental degradation. Prime examples are pilgrimage destinations like Rishikesh and hill stations like Dehradoon. These spots, once nestled in the pristine ranges of the Himalayas, are now dirty commercial destinations. Places like Dehradoon are even experiencing a construction boom so large that illegal immigrants from Bangladesh are also flocking there. Religious destinations in the Himalayas, where devotees flock in millions now, are also hot destinations for the medicinal plant trade, which has threatened plant life in the area.
3. Poaching:
Large mammals such as the tiger, rhinoceros, and elephant once faced the distinct possibility of complete extinction due to rampant hunting and poaching. However, efforts by conservationists since the 1970s have helped stabilize and grow these populations. Still, the trade in tiger hide, elephant tusks, tiger teeth, and rhinoceros horn remains profitable and rampant.
4. Climate Change:
Although dire IPCC predictions of Himalayan glaciers melting by 2035 have been retracted, there is no doubt that several Himalayan glaciers are melting. In the Western Ghats, studies have shown that the deciduous and evergreen forests of Karnataka are the most at risk. Climate change may significantly affect the temperatures, rainfalls, and water tables in the Western Ghats, according to an assessment by the Government of India.
5. Chain Extinction:
In any ecosystem, every component is related to every else. Extinction of any one component species results in a chain of events damaging the other species. For ex, the extinction on one plant species leads to the loss of many insect species which depend on that particular tree for habitat and feeding.
Megadiversity Countries of the World
Megadiversity countries refer to any nations which have a high number of endemic species. Conservation International identified 17 megadiversity countries in 1998. These countries exhibit great diversity of flora and fauna. A megadiversity country must have at least 5,000 species of endemic plants and a border marine ecosystem. 17 megadiversity countries are Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, South Africa, the United States, and Venezuela.
Role of JFM and PBR in Conserving Biodiversity
Joint Forest Management (JFM)
Joint Forest Management (JFM) may be defined as the regeneration and conservation of the forest by joint involvement of local people and the state forest department. This system of forest conservation has got national recognition and the policies along with the objectives of the programme have been incorporated in the National Forest Policy, 1988, and Joint Forest Guideline, 1990, Govt, of India.
Origin of the Project JFM:
JFM was started in 1971 in West Bengal at Arabari Forest, West Midnapore. Arabari Forest is important for its sal trees which is a commercially profitable crop. Due to the illegal harvesting of forest products and grazing by the local population, the forest faced great damage. Then forest department officials took a decision to involve local people along with the Forest Department to save the forest. Initially, the programme involved 612 families to manage about 12.7 sq km of the forest which was identified as degraded. An agreement with the local people was made with a share of the profit from the forest with villagers. The experiment appeared successful and by 1987 it was expanded to other parts of the forest. Following this JFM was also adopted by Haryana Government in 1977 to prevent soil erosion and deforestation.
Joint Forest Management and its Objective:
Joint Forest Management (JFM) was adapted for the protection and sustainable development of the forest. It has been felt by the government that if traditional knowledge of the local community is combined with modern scientific information obtained conservation of forests will be more meaningful. Conservation of forests will be successful if forest resources are harvested and used judiciously keeping in mind the sustainability of the forest. Only Participatory Forest Management (PFM) may serve this purpose. Therefore, PFM is a tool for JFM-with the help of Participatory Forest Management Conservation as well as protection of the forest may be possible.
People’s Biodiversity Register (PBR)
India is a megadiversity country in the world. In addition, it is having large number of fishing communities, and farming communities with traditional knowledge of varying degrees. With the advancement of science and technology, the value of biodiversity has also been increased and traditional knowledge may give it a new dimension. Therefore, a complete knowledge of the biodiversity of a country is essential for the sustainable development of the country as a whole. Utilization of biodiversity should also be done judiciously with proper conservation of biodiversity wealth for future generations. The first step toward this is the documentation of the bioresources of the country.
Biodiversity may be documented through the People’s Biodiversity Register which should start from the panchayat level upwards. Therefore, PBR is a documentation of the local biological diversities. It includes landscape i.e., cultivated lands, aquatic bodies such as rivers, ponds, ditches, canals, and forests, other areas like a wasteland, pastures, gardens, burial grounds and cemeteries, life scape i.e., crop plants, vegetables, fruits, wild plants, wild animals, domestic animals, bird, insects, micro-flora and fauna and people scape as well as traditional knowledge associated with biodiversity and use.
The Process of PBR Preparation:
In preparing PBR active support and cooperation of a large number of people are essential and they will share their common and specialized knowledge. Before involving the local people in documenting the biodiversity information a Biodiversity Management Committee must be constructed with people within the jurisdiction of the area of study. In the first step, a group meeting is to be organized with the villagers or local groups identified for collection. The purpose and objectives of PBR preparation should be explained to the persons in the group. There is the sovereign right of the country over its biological resources according to the Biodiversity Act, 2003 and the essentiality of conservation of the resources should be explained to the participating group. The participating individuals may gather different information based on the conservation with the resource person.
The BMC has a significant role in preparing the PBR. As per Biological Diversity Rules, 2002 the mandatory roles of BMC are:
- BMC will prepare PBR in consultation with the local people and the register should contain comprehensive information on the availability and knowledge of local resources (biological), their medicinal importance, and their use.
- BMC will advise and guide the State Biodiversity Board about matters related to the biodiversity of a locality.
- The SBB shall provide guidance of technical support to BMC for preparing PBR.
- BMC must authenticate the data collected in the PBR.
Constitution of the Participating Group for Preparation of PBR:
Local communities must be involved in the process. Therefore, the participating group for PBR preparation must include local people. However, input of the person belonging to the following groups in the locality may be acceptable for the purpose.
- Interested members of BMC.
- Students/Teachers of the High Schools/Colleges.
- Volunteers from NGOs.
- Person(s) from different user groups.
Significance of PBR
PBR is very significant as indicated below:
- Identification of local Biodiversity Hot Spots.
- Identification of biologically significant areas.
- Identification of local endemic and endangered species.
- Informing the ecological history of an area.
- Identification of the lifescape diversity.
Major Achievements in the Conservation of Biodiversity in India
- Joint Forest Management (JFM) is undertaken by the government to restore 10.25 million hectares of degraded forest.
- Conservation of germplasm is given greater concern by ICRISAT.
- Wild Life Protection Act, 1972, and Forest Protection Act 1980 have been issued and come into force.
- Tiger Protection Act, of 1973 has proved to be helpful in conserving the Indian National animal.